A Multi-level Review of Impression Management Motives and Behaviors
Introduction
In contempo years, impression management (IM) has received renewed attention amidst scholars (e.g., Liu et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2021). IM tin can exist defined as the process by which "individuals attempt to command the impressions others form of them" (Leary and Kowalski, 1990). IM is of master importance for individuals, since the impressions they make on others influences how others perceive and treat them (Bozeman and Kacmar, 1997; Gioaba and Krings, 2017). Amongst other tools, IM has revolutionized career development, offering competitive and sustainable career opportunities (Villeda and McCamey, 2019). For example, developing a resume and showing daily achievements online are unavoidable tools to enhance our career (El Ouirdi et al., 2015). In this vein, individuals using IM take higher chances of getting positive job interview ratings (Amaral et al., 2019). A better agreement of the mechanism linking IM and the career-related outcomes requires distinguishing betwixt different IM types, every bit different IM mechanisms might atomic number 82 to different career outcomes.
First, IM may depend on the mechanism used, creating favorable impressions through 2 unlike types: direct and indirect IM. Direct IM refers to "individuals self-promoting their own achievements and success" (Tal-Or and Drukman, 2010). Indirect IM (also called impression management by association) refers to "behaviors undertaken by individuals at piece of work through associations with other colleagues to create favorable impressions of themselves" (Cialdini and Richardson, 1980). Whereas, the literature mainly considers direct IM, indirect IM is at present widely used, especially on social media platforms that are invading our lives. Using posts associated with a particular company/institute and connecting and following people on social network platforms are practiced examples of indirect IM. Unfortunately, evidence is lacking on the deviation that direct and indirect IM might have on career outcomes.
Second, IM may depend on the interaction fashion adopted: face-to-face up or online (Zhao et al., 2008). Face-to-confront interaction refers to the visibility of a concrete body in social interactions, such as physical characteristics (i.due east., gender, race, and looks), physical settings (i.e., furniture and decor), and personal attributes (i.east., appearance, linguistic communication, and style). Online interactions instead denote the invisibility of the physical body in social interactions through text or voice messages (Zhao et al., 2008). Very few studies explore the notion of IM in the online context. Since recruiters increasingly use social networking platforms in their search for candidates (Villeda and McCamey, 2019), understanding online IM for potential career consequences, and differentiating between the online and face-to-face contexts that atomic number 82 to different career-related outcomes, is pivotal.
In this systematic literature review composed of 55 articles in English published from 1980 to 2020, we explore how the dissimilar IM mechanisms (i.eastward., direct vs. indirect, and face-to-confront vs. online) contribute to individuals' career development, and seek to answer the following questions:
1) Are there any deviation between IM types (direct vs. indirect) and career related outcomes?
2) Does IM have like effects on career development in the confront-to-confront and online contexts?
A key contribution of this study is providing insights on the state-of-the-art of IM and the deviation between the types (direct vs. indirect) and interaction modes (contiguous vs. online) for a amend understanding of the relevance of IM and the resulting career-related outcomes.
Practical Insights Into the Prevalence of New Forms of IM
Since the COVID-xix pandemic, individuals and organizations take been forced to operate through online technologies and social platforms (Bhaskar et al., 2021). Consulting the social networking profiles of potential candidates on Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn is more than ever a fundamental human being resources management practice in the modern organization (Villeda and McCamey, 2019). The information provided allows gauging the personality and interests of candidates and their alignment with the organizational culture.
The structure of social media enables individuals to share their achievements directly (direct IM) or through clan with others (indirect IM). While straight IM has been widely examined (e.g., Andrews and Kacmar, 2001), indirect IM has become more salient in the gimmicky context. Indeed, in the individual perspective, the all-encompassing utilize of social media creates additional opportunities for indirect IM through allowing people to hands associate themselves with others on different social media platforms. In the organizational perspective, gimmicky managers systematically consult social media that influence their professional decisions (Fieseler and Ranzini, 2015). For instance, managers use social media to assess the suitability of a job seeker for a particular position (Van Iddekinge et al., 2016). Researching a job seeker'southward social media presence allows managers to see what others are saying near them. For instance, platforms such equally LinkedIn allow users to recommend each other (considered indirect IM), and the testimonials on a user'southward platform tin reveal what they might offer the company. Indirect IM is thus becoming cardinal in determining career outcomes.
As the prevalence and popularity of online social networking has grown extensively in contempo years (Schivinski et al., 2020), IM has moved from the face-to-face to the online interaction mode. From the employee perspective, online social networking provides valuable resource, such every bit building concern relations, identifying opportunities, and interacting with others (Nazir et al., 2020). From an organizational perspective, online social networking is recognized as a dominant communications tool (Dwivedi et al., 2020) that allows reducing recruitment costs (Leader-Chivée and Cowan, 2008). Interestingly, 60 minutes managers consider individuals' information on online social networking platforms every bit "honest" and authentic in comparison to the traditional résumé used in the face-to-face context (Zide et al., 2014). Likewise, Rowell (2010) shows that 70% of Hour managers reject job applicants due to their online social networking beliefs. The emergence and anchoring of new forms of IM pb us to differentiate between directly vs. indirect, and online vs. face up-to-face up IM, to sympathize their consequences on career outcomes.
Theoretical Impression Management Perspective
Individuals manage their impressions for career path purposes as IM tin can heighten their career opportunities. Nosotros side by side present the different types of IM linked to career-related outcomes.
Impression Management: From Direct to Indirect
Impression management refers to man beliefs designed to obtain a favorable reaction from others (Felson, 1978; Bolino et al., 2008) through cocky-presentation (Goffman, 1959). IM theory was first conceptualized by Goffman (1959) who proposed a dramaturgical model of social life composed of two cardinal players: an "actor" who engages in "IM tactics" and an "audience" that interacts with "actors" to create a desired image. IM tactics can be categorized equally direct and indirect (Cialdini and Richardson, 1980). First, directly IM refers to individuals presenting their own achievements and success (Tal-Or and Drukman, 2010), including believing and defensive tactics (Wayne and Kacmar, 1991; Stevens and Kristof, 1995). Assertive tactics are "proactive behaviors undertaken past individuals to create a specific identity to further their careers." Defensive tactics are "reactive behaviors used past individuals post-obit actions that may portray them negatively" seeking to "avert negative career implications" (Andrews and Kacmar, 2001). Direct IM is premised to be linked with outcomes, including interview performance, chore offers, hiring decisions, perceived qualifications, adequacy of information, and interviewer confidence (Gilmore and Ferris, 1989; Leary and Kowalski, 1990; Bolino et al., 2008).
Indirect IM refers to individuals managing their association with others for the purposes of creating a favorable impression of themselves (Cialdini and Richardson, 1980). Indirect tactics create impressions by involving a third party to manage the individual's paradigm. Indirect IM supports the rest theory of Heider (1958) postulating that people tend to see things akin when they are associated with ane another in lodge to maintain cognitive balance. According to Andrews and Kacmar (2001), indirect IM involves 4 connection-focused tactics: boasting, blurring, blaring, and burying. Boasting is divers as an individual embracing his or her positive connections past associating with favorable others. Burying is the individual tendency to muffle relationships with unsuccessful others for the sake of creating a perfect image of him or herself. Clarion is divers as an individual minimizing a connexion with unfavorable others, especially in public. Finally, blurring refers to an private's tendency to use the success of others, especially in the work place, as this will increase the perception of how successful he/she is in his/her career. Early on work on indirect IM deems that it positively influences career-related outcomes, such as self-promotion (Cialdini, 1989).
Impression Management: From Face-to-face to Online
Whatsoever the tactics, IM is used in two interaction modes: face-to-face and online. While IM enquiry is extensive, studies linking the phenomenon with online social networking and career-related outcomes are deficient. Nonetheless, the fluidity of social media platforms, especially their ability to address multiple audiences and diverse purposes, renders the online context interesting to understand IM (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010). Indeed, IM theory has been extended to the online context (Zhao et al., 2008; Hogan, 2010; Rosenberg and Egbert, 2011; Harrison and Budworth, 2015). Several researchers recognize the potential of online social networking and its relation to impression formation (Tong et al., 2008; Zhao et al., 2008). IM theory provides a framework to assess online impressions created by task seekers through the data they display (Barrick et al., 2009; Harrison and Budworth, 2015). Therefore, social media users ensure that their contour is catchy, aiming to influence how others perceive them (Rosenberg and Egbert, 2011). Indeed, individuals tend to follow and connect with item people, companies, and associations for the sake of enhancing their image via indirect IM in the online context. This favorable epitome thus fosters positive career outcomes (El Ouirdi et al., 2015).
The Systematic Literature Review Methodology
To explore the effects of the unlike IM tactics on career related outcomes, nosotros conducted a systematic literature review (SLR). SLR involves gathering extant literature on a field of study that meets the predetermined inclusion criteria and answers the established inquiry question(s). Its purpose is to codify a wide perspective of a research area and provide an unbiased summary of the literature (Torraco, 2005; Borrego et al., 2014). Moreover, a well-structured SLR has numerous benefits, such as explaining a specific problem, revealing gaps and inconsistencies in the literature, and providing guidance for future research and exercise (Baumeister and Leary, 1997). The methodology also ensures the generation of knowledge in a structured and systematic way from multiple studies. 1 of the key advantages of SLR is that information technology allows the restrictive retrieval of data from multiple databases, ensuring it is insufficiently less biased than traditional literature reviews (Borrego et al., 2014).
Different authors have presented guiding principles to assist SLR researchers in constructing procedures that adhere to the methodology and the strategies to evaluate suitable research (Nightingale, 2009). Following the four stages of Tranfield et al. (2003) in this review, we starting time defined the search strategy and identified potential databases before embarking on the search (Higgins and Green, 2008). 2d, we identified suitable articles based on the predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Third, we undertook a synthesis of the selected studies that involved extracting and categorizing the data. Final, we analyzed the results and drew conclusions. For the sake of transparency and to ensure our literature review is reproducible, all the relevant steps are detailed side by side. Effigy 1 represents the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) menses diagram (Moher et al., 2009). It allows to take a meliorate overview of the different steps taken for this SLR.
Figure one. PRISMA flow diagram.
Searching the Empirical Literature
For this review, we checked different databases co-ordinate to the IM definition. Nosotros then drew on seminal IM research papers to define the key terms and exact concepts later used to define the search terms and the fourth dimension menstruum. Based on these results and the information on the different terms used to describe IM, we identified the most promising search terms for our literature review equally shown in Table i (e.yard., impression direction) using reliable databases, including Spider web of Science, Scopus, Science Direct, ProQuest, and Wiley. Web of Scientific discipline and Scopus are citation databases that search multiple databases and sources to identify studies based on keywords, while the ProQuest search encompassed 18 databases.
Tabular array 1. Summary of search result.
Nosotros used the following keywords in our search: IM, Hour, career, social media, social networking, online, impression management by association, face-to-face, and task search in combination with impression direction. We chose to brainstorm our SLR in 1980 because critical theoretical IM frameworks were published at that time (Cialdini and Richardson, 1980).
After defining the research parameters, nosotros performed the literature search initially resulting in one,700 publications which we recorded and organized using Refworks and Excel (Callahan, 2010).
Screening the Literature
We screened the resulting 1,700 publications in two steps. In the first pace, we searched for relevant publications using the defined search terms and filtered the results for the related literature. Post-obit the literature search recommendations (Brocke et al., 2015), we performed a backward (screening the references using these papers) and forwards search (publications that cite these papers). Additionally, we followed Levy and Ellis'south (2006) ranking approach to select the appropriate journals. For our selection process, nosotros picked the top tier IM journals enriched with those that focus on like or next topics, as our written report includes online social networking as well as individuals' career-related outcomes. We selected numerous reputable journals, including Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Journal of Organizational Behavior, University of Management, Journal of Management, Journal of Computer-Mediated Advice, Career Development International, amongst many more. After screening the literature, 237 articles remained.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The inclusion and exclusion criteria were prepare as part of the protocol prior to the start of the projection. Included manuscripts needed to be (a) bookish-peer-reviewed, (b) the focus of these publication needed to be centered around impression management, (c) these papers needed to be specifically aligned with career related outcomes from different mode of interactions (i.e., face-to-face and online) (d) in English, (e) the twelvemonth of publication had to autumn between 1980 and 2020. In dissimilarity, we excluded: (i) Publication in not-English format, (2) duplicated inquiry papers, (3) non-peer-reviewed articles (such as not-bookish journals), (iii) unpublished doctoral theses, and (iv) grayness literature (such equally conferences and working papers).
We considered the 237 articles for inclusion and exclusion. The starting time step in this procedure entailed removing unrelated papers, reducing the number of records to 105. Next, we checked the articles for their relevance to our study based on the championship, keywords, and abstract. Later evaluating all publications, we identified 55 articles as relevant to our inquiry topic. Table 2 provides the authors/appointment and career related outcomes according to the straight and indirect IM, face-to-face and online research focus. We extracted those variables from the private papers: bacon, promotion, performance assessment, chore promotion, task interview ratings, interviewers' judgements, job interview evaluation, hiring recommendations, job offer, second job interview, recruiter evaluation, promotion scores, performance appraisal, supervisor liking, performance ratings, career success, performance evaluation, salary progression, promotability assessments, influence job search, recruitment procedure, selection process, chore interview assessment, task functioning, job design, employee pick, job satisfaction, job commitment, career satisfaction, adjusted salary, cocky-promotion, salary recommendations, and task opportunities.
Table 2. Search results and nomenclature.
Data Direction and Analysis
To identify the current and future enquiry topics according to the 55 articles identified, we developed a framework to classify the articles. As a starting point, we analyzed studies in the face-to-face context, including career-related outcomes of direct and indirect IM. Then, we extended our analysis to the online context. Table 3 shows the nomenclature by frequency, differentiating between the interaction modes (contiguous vs. online) and career-related outcomes of the IM mechanisms (straight vs. indirect) adopted. Separating the interaction modes (face-to-face up vs. online) allows identifying the gap in the literature and illustrating the importance of agreement both modes and IM tactics to achieve the desired career-related consequence.
Table 3. IM studies.
Indeed, while most of the studies identified bargain with direct IM in the online context, some older studies explore the link between indirect contiguous IM and career-related outcomes. All the same, while several authors integrate direct IM in the online context, we found no studies dealing with indirect IM in the online context.
Findings
Straight IM in the Face-to-face Context
Regarding directly IM in the face up-to-face context, most studies focus on the link between IM and job interview, job performance, and other career-related outcomes every bit detailed next.
Direct Face-to-face IM and Job Interview
Numerous studies focus on the result of direct face-to-face IM, with job interview as the nigh common career-related event (Gilmore and Ferris, 1989; Baron, 1993; Ellis et al., 2002; Kristof-Brown et al., 2002; Law et al., 2002; Weiss and Feldman, 2006; Noor et al., 2017; Peck and Levashina, 2017; Roulin and Bourdage, 2017). For example, Von Baeyer et al. (1981) study a male interviewer's knowledge and attitude toward female candidates in a stereotyped surround. Kacmar and Carlson (1994) focus on the process of women searching for jobs using directly IM. Stevens and Kristof (1995) examine the human relationship betwixt direct IM and job interview result. Tsai et al. (2005) explore the effect of directly IM tactics on task interviews, showing these have a positive influence on interviewer evaluation. Chen et al. (2010) study bidder direct IM tactics in job interviews with the moderating role of interviewer affectivity. Empirical bear witness shows that direct IM tactics, such every bit self-focused IM, other-focused IM, and non-verbal IM, positively influence interviewer evaluations through self-focused directly IM.
Tsai et al. (2010) study straight IM tactics in job interviews with an emphasis on three defensive applicant tactics: apologies, justifications, and excuses. Collecting empirical information through observing applicant interviews, they explore the moderating effect of negative competence- and integrity-related concerns on the three straight IM defensive tactics, finding that the apologies tactic has the strongest impact.
Swann et al. (2015) study direct IM and chore interviews in the medical context. Although unable to provide conclusive prove, the authors offer a brief overview of direct IM over time, and encourage training models that provide a logical and systematic approach for candidates to ensure that the results of interview selection are closely correlated with good clinical outcomes for successful candidates. Bourdage et al. (2017) bear witness the departure between reality and faking in chore interviews. Direct IM is used to impress interviewers, as candidates attempt to create a likable impression and gain job opportunities. They approach direct IM from various perspectives, such every bit being honest and deceptive, IM effectiveness, IM equally a shield against discrimination, and IM equally dyadic and beyond the applicant.
Gioaba and Krings (2017) study effective means of mitigating discrimination confronting older applicants based on direct IM in job interviews. They detect that the use of direct IM by older applicants provides stronger chore interview and hiring opportunities. Similarly to Bourdage et al. (2017), Roulin and Bourdage (2017) extend the study of the use of honesty and deceptive direct IM across multiple job interviews.
Overall, these studies evidence that direct IM tactics lead to positive effects on job interviews in the face-to-face interaction mode.
Direct Confront-to-Face IM and Chore Functioning
Numerous scholars study the positive effect of direct IM in the contiguous interaction manner on individuals' chore operation (Wayne and Ferris, 1990; Wayne and Kacmar, 1991; Ferris et al., 1994; Wayne and Liden, 1995; Bolino and Turnley, 2003; Zivnuska et al., 2004; Barsness et al., 2005; Foldes et al., 2006; Harris et al., 2007; O'Connell et al., 2011).
Viswesvaran et al. (2001) study direct face-to-face IM and job performance by exploring the human relationship between direct IM scale scores, overall job performance, and managerial interpersonal interactions. Zivnuska et al. (2004) investigate the interactive result of organizational politics and direct IM on supervisor ratings of employee performance. In their study, Ispas et al. (2014) discover a significant link between straight IM and objective chore performance. Another study in the field of straight IM and job performance is that of Ingold et al. (2015) who focus on directly IM, faking in the selection context, and job functioning. The authors find that candidates that faked direct IM in interviews also falsified a personality inventory, and that this cant is positively related to supervisor job performance rating.
Brouer et al. (2016) study directly IM and the ability to manage resource with job performance as mediator. They find that higher levels of social resource, such as reputation and leader-fellow member exchange, are positively related to job performance. Peck and Levashina (2017) study direct IM in relation to interviews and task performance, finding that directly IM has a stronger touch on interview and job performance rating. The most recent study is that of Probst et al. (2019) investigating the human relationship between job insecurity and direct IM to determine a relationship betwixt supervisor-focused IM, lower job insecurity, positive in-role behavior, and task performance. Accordingly, if directly IM is correctly skillful, irrespective of whether true or imitation, it will lead to a improve job performance rating.
Overall, the use of straight IM at the workplace has a positive result on employees' chore performance rating.
Straight Face-to-face IM and Other Career Outcomes
Several studies link directly face-to-face IM and different career-related outcomes, such equally salary increase, hiring recommendations, promotions, chore commitment, and overall career success (Guess and Bretz, 1994; Kacmar and Carlson, 1994; Wayne et al., 1997; Higgins et al., 2003; McFarland et al., 2003; Higgins and Approximate, 2004; Avery and McKay, 2006; Bolino et al., 2008; Westphal, 2010; Asawo and George, 2018).
For example, Kang et al. (2012) investigate the relationship between job insecurity and IM work-related behaviors, finding that the perception of job insecurity leads to reduced actress-role and IM behavior. Apparently, the intensity of withdrawal increases with increased employability. Harris et al. (2013) study IM behaviors in relation to IM culture and chore outcomes, such every bit operation, promotion, compensation, and IM tactics (intimidation and exemplification), finding that intimidation has negative effects, while exemplification has positive furnishings on IM tactics. Cheng et al. (2014) focus on the interactive effects of task functioning and IM tactics on career outcomes, finding that the human relationship betwixt task functioning and career satisfaction is greater amid employees who frequently use self-promotion.
By and large, in the face-to-confront interaction mode, a strong relation is found between direct IM and career-related outcomes, such as salary increment, chore promotion, job commitment, and hiring recommendations.
Indirect IM in the Confront-to-Face Context
While generally few scholars focus on indirect compared to direct IM, some studies consider indirect IM in the face up-to-face interaction manner with different career-related outcomes, such as chore appointment and chore satisfaction. Cialdini and Richardson (1980) show that individuals tend to use indirect IM tactics, for example, highlighting successful connections with others to enhance their personal image (prestige). Cialdini (1989) shows that an individual's image can be enhanced by associating with successful others and disassociating from failures. Finch and Cialdini (1989) reveal that unit-connection plays an essential role in individuals' epitome merely past associating themselves by nascence date with favorable or unfavorable individuals. Finally, Andrews and Kacmar (2001) develop and validate an indirect IM scale, admitting not adopted in relation to career-related outcomes.
Overall, these studies bear witness that indirect IM has positive effects on career-related outcomes that are underestimated.
Direct IM in the Online Context
Some researchers have recently focused on direct IM in the online context (Rosenberg and Egbert, 2011; Nestler and Dorsum, 2013; Stopfer et al., 2013; Harrison and Budworth, 2015; Paliszkiewicz and Madra-Sawicka, 2016). For instance, Paliszkiewicz and Madra-Sawicka (2016) illustrate the importance of online IM on LinkedIn to benefit from the platform features and proceeds chore opportunities. Harrison and Budworth (2015) find a positive relation betwixt exact and non-exact IM on hiring and salary recommendations in social media platforms. Three studies deal with the importance of IM in online social networks for self-promotion purposes (Rosenberg and Egbert, 2011; Nestler and Back, 2013; Stopfer et al., 2013).
Overall, these studies show the importance of using directly IM in the online context to obtain the desired career outcomes.
Indirect IM in the Online Context
As mentioned, we constitute no studies that deal specifically with indirect IM in the online context.
Discussion
Our analysis of the 55 studies provides deep insights on IM and career-related outcomes in both the contiguous and online context. Figure ii provides an illustration of what is IM and what are its associations.
Figure 2. IM scheme.
Individuals shape their impressions in accordance with how they stand for themselves and what they want to testify recruiters and managers, both in a direct and indirect way, and in the face-to-face and online contexts. We do not observe any major differences between IM mechanisms (direct vs. indirect) and interaction mode (contiguous vs. online) in relation to their positive function in career-related outcomes.
Indeed, both the direct vs. indirect IM mechanisms are linked to individuals' career success. Regarding career-related outcomes, such as task interviews and job performance, most studies naturally relate to direct IM in the face-to-face interaction mode. In the very few studies that bargain with the online interaction fashion, self-promotion is the common career-related outcome. For a meliorate overview of IM in all contexts and circumstances, further research is needed on the different potential outcomes. For example, in the online mode, it may be worth exploring whether IM is and so powerful that information technology impacts job operation despite the absence of directly concrete interactions.
In addition, scholars accept focused mainly on direct IM, neglecting the importance of indirect IM. In detail, no studies focus on the indirect online interaction fashion, while but iv deal with indirect face-to-face interactions. In that location is thus a gap in the literature in differentiating between direct vs. indirect IM in the face-to-face vs. online interaction modes, which is crucial to career-related outcomes. To fully capture the IM miracle, scholars should consider the impact of indirect IM in full general, and specifically in the online context, on career-related outcomes.
Our review conspicuously shows the demand to differentiate IM (direct vs. indirect) in both contexts (confront-to-face up vs. online) and the career-related outcomes. Even if not our main aim, this systematic literature review allows highlighting some boosted unanswered questions for future researchers to address as specified in Tabular array 4.
Tabular array 4. Indirect IM questions and time to come research avenues.
Implications for Individuals and Career Counselors
Enquiry on IM (directly vs. indirect) has practical implication for individuals and career counselors. For individuals, making the right clan with successful others and disassociating from unsuccessful others is a pregnant chemical element in succeeding at work and enhancing prestige (Andrews and Kacmar, 2001). Further, the literature shows that individuals who create an impression need to maintain this impression even at later stages to manage and strengthen the image in the minds of others (Higgins et al., 2003; Barrick et al., 2009). Commencement, associating with a third party is theoretically proven to create a cognitive rest in the mind of the others (Kacmar et al., 2011). Every bit such, individuals in the workplace engage with higher reputation individuals and learn from the all-time because associating with unfavorable others volition affect their career upshot. 2nd, individuals using online social networking must pay attending to who they are continued and associated with, equally this volition lead to either valuable or agin future returns. Individuals are frequently evaluated for career purposes enabled by the accessibility of social network platforms.
A ameliorate understanding of online social networking is also crucial for career counselors to stay up to date with digital trends. Scholars indicate the emergence of online social networking for both job seekers and career counselors (Bolino et al., 2016). According to the analysis of social networking platforms, career counselors mainly use LinkedIn when checking individuals or chore seekers for career purposes, equally it is used more for professional person networking, while Facebook and Twitter too share non-professional content, potentially leading to bias. Yet, every jobseeker has a social life, and rejecting individuals because of their Facebook content may lead to disregarding those who could in fact benefit the organization.
Limitations
This SLR took great care to avoid whatsoever publication bias. First, the Preferred Reporting Items in Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) flow diagram shows the clarity and credibility of our research (Moher et al., 2009). This universally accepted evidence-based checklist reduces publication bias. Second, nosotros were highly concerned about the gray literature. Even so, nosotros decided to remove gray literature from our inclusion criteria. Gray literature is composed of working papers, conferences and articles that are non academically peer-reviewed (Adams et al., 2016). Nosotros are aware that some authors encourage to include gray literature (e.one thousand., Briner and Denyer, 2012). Nevertheless, we follow the recommendation of Kraus et al. (2020) to exclude it. Traditional reviews are criticized for subjective literature option and quality appraisal (Denyer and Tranfield, 2006). Indeed, past integrated peer review articles, the procedure is more transparent and replicable. Also, the selected papers take been checked through the academic process. It thus represents a guarantee of quality. Nosotros acknowledge that this strategy can even so be responsible of a publication bias every bit all papers of expert quality are non all published in peer reviewed journals. Third, we considered five main and highly reliable database to reduce the publication bias such as Spider web of Science, Scopus, Wiley, Science Straight and Proquest. Finally, the included papers were checked by two authors to heighten the brownie and to evaluate the quality of the methodology of the papers that are included in the SLR. Because nosotros chose just peer reviewed manufactures in primary research database and because all papers have been checked past two authors to detect any quality trouble, we can ensure a good methodological quality of the included studies.
As well, our aim was to practice a systematic literature review in order to compare direct vs. indirect and online vs. face up to face IM. Unfortunately, due to the weak number of peer reviewed publications about indirect IM and online IM, a quantitative meta-analysis would have non been appropriated. Nevertheless, it would be very insightful to do in the futurity a quantitative analysis of the impact of unlike types of IM on career related outcomes when more publications will be bachelor.
Decision
This literature review shows that indirect IM is often disregarded by researchers, highlighting the need for further investigations on both interactions modes (contiguous vs. online). While the literature shows that job seekers and recruiters use online social networking to create a positive image, the field has received limited academic attention, and further research is needed to empathise this miracle in greater detail.
Data Availability Argument
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary fabric, farther inquiries can exist directed to the corresponding author.
Author Contributions
EA-S did the SLR. MO helped in the writing of the newspaper. All authors listed accept made a substantial, directly and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of whatsoever commercial or financial relationships that could exist construed as a potential disharmonize of interest.
Publisher'south Notation
All claims expressed in this commodity are solely those of the authors and practise not necessarily stand for those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Whatsoever product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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